Cognitive Dysfunction Relating to Schizophrenia Essay

Cognitive Dysfunction Relating to Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is often a chronic relapsing psychotic disorder that disrupts normal thought, speech, and behavior. It is a cluster of severe prolonged mental disturbances that â€Å"...is by far the most chronic and disabling of the major mental disorders. This disease may be one disorder, or it may be many disorders, with different causes† (Andreasen Schutlz, 1999). It is a disease that makes it difficult for a person to tell the difference between real and unreal experiences. In addition, â€Å"it enables the person to think logically, to have normal emotional responses to others, and to behave normally in social situations† (Andreasen, 1999). People with schizophrenia may have†¦show more content†¦However, usually the illness develops slowly over months or even years. At first, the symptoms may not be noticed or may be confused with those of other conditions. â€Å"Schizophrenia is characterized by a constellation of distinctive and predictable symp toms. The symptoms that are generally associated with the disease are called positive â€Å"psychotic† symptoms, which denote the presence of grossly abnormal behavior. These abnormal behaviors include thought disorder, delusions, and hallucinations† (Frith, 1995). The positive symptoms of schizophrenia are among its most striking features and they are the most difficult to understand. Hearing voices talking to you, experiencing alien thoughts being inserted into your mind, and believing that alien forces are controlling your most trivial actions are as well outside the normal range of experience. In addition, such experiences are very rarely reported by neurological patients. In consequence, neuropsychological tests relevant to the cognitive processes underlying these symptoms have not yet been developed (Andreasen, 1999). Delusions are common among individuals with schizophrenia. These are false beliefs that appear obviously untrue to other people. An affected person â€Å"begins to believe that people are reading their minds or plottingShow MoreRelatedAutism Spectrum Disorder ( Asd )798 Words   |  4 Pages set of everyday life (Happà ©, 2006). The third theory, is Executive Dysfunction, relating to impairments in the executive functions. The various hypothesis of the theories regarding Autism cannot fully explain all the areas of disabilities, but they can attempt to try with neurological and psychological research. For this review, we will give light to literature regarding working memory deficits viewed in Executive dysfunction regards individuals with Autism. 2. Executive Functions ExecutiveRead MoreCurrent Event Psychology Article Review1433 Words   |  6 Pagesthought process and planning made by the parents is rather extensive. There are many factors at play that parents must keep in mind. They have to consider social and cultural issues, the ethics involved in the matter, as well as personal dynamics relating to psychology. The goal of the parents wasn’t a mere attempt to force traditional roles and values onto their children. However, they were respectful to their child own values. Parents and teachers would be more aware, constructive, and active participantRead More Psychosocial Rehabilitation for Schizophrenia Essay2374 Words   |  10 PagesPsychosocial Rehabilitation for Schizophrenia nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Psychosocial rehabilitation is a learning based approach using a token economy and social skill training to help patients with schizophrenia develop adaptive behaviors (Nevid, Rathus, amp; Green, 2003). To live successfully in the community, a variety of treatment approaches are available to people with schizophrenia. A few of the psychosocial rehabilitation options for people with schizophrenia include hospitalization, self-helpRead MoreThe Patient That Will Be Discussed1643 Words   |  7 PagesRating: 4, 4 Additional Information: Medical problems: none Psychosocial Problem: Loss of job, divorce, socially withdrawn Unlike Schizophrenia, in which people experience bizarre delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and inappropriate affects, individuals with Delusional Disorder have persistent delusions, but they are not bizarre and not due to Schizophrenia. In addition, individuals with this disorder tend to be jealous, grandiose, and experience somatic delusions. Ms. W fits the DelusionalRead MoreThe Models : Teaching Skills And Specific Populations2043 Words   |  9 Pagesstrategic, and behavioral and cognitive-behavioral models. I selected this therapy because it is straight forward like me. The subjects that will be discussed within this paper comprise of its history, families dealing with mental disorders, medical family therapy, short-term educational programs, and a brief summary. Merriam-Webster’s Medical Dictionary lists the definition of psychoeducational is â€Å"of or relating to the psychological aspects of education; specifically: relating to or used in the educationRead MoreThe Relationship between Genetics and Violence Essay1442 Words   |  6 Pagesrule that men should direct the activities of their wives and children† (Blume 1996:11). However, as society moved away from a strictly patriarchal mindset, violence became less accepted. Due to this, reports of violence increased, especially those relating to domestic violence. As an attempt to rationalize the increased reports of violent acts, several theories came about. One of these theories was the functional analysis theory. This theory states that â€Å"certain needs must be met in order for a socialRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legal? Cannabis?1724 Words   |  7 Pagesfor clinical use due to its side effects and the drug is mildly addicting, withdrawal effects are also a risk, and it can cause addiction to other substances. Also, in adolescents and prenatal cognitive dysfunctions, memory loss, mood changes, amotivational syndrome, attentional effects, and schizophrenia-like psychoses are often seen in chronic cannabis users. Counterbalancing addiction, therapeutic uses of cannabinoids regarding obesity, anorexia, emesis, pain, inflammation, and several other diseasesRead MoreA Genetic Review Of Schizophreni Research Progress Of Chromosomes 22 And 83307 Words   |  14 PagesDecember 1, 2014 A Genetic Review of Schizophrenia: Research progress of chromosomes 22 and 8 Present to: Geraldine Boyden By: Quiana Jones Core Articles: Gill M, Vallada H, Collier D et al: A combined analysis of D22S278 marker alleles in affected sib-pairs: support for a susceptibility locus for schizophrenia at chromosome 22q12. Am J Med Genet Neuropsychiatr Genet 1996; 67: 40–45. Polymeropoulos MH, Coon H, Byerley W, et al: Search for schizophrenia susceptibility locus on human chromosomeRead MoreAntipsychotics and Yoga Therapy as an Adjunct Treatment for Schizophrenia2192 Words   |  9 PagesAntipsychotic Medications and Yoga Therapy as an Adjunct Treatment for Schizophrenia Sarah Garrabrant University of South Florida Introduction Schizophrenia is a severe form of mental illness classified in the DSM IV-TR as a Psychotic disorder. It is characterize by broad impairments in cognition that place limitations on recovery (Eack, 2012, p. 235). Antipsychotic drugs are the first line of treatment for Schizophrenic patients, but come with adverse side-effects and many patients areRead MoreThe Types Of Mental Illnesses1760 Words   |  8 Pages Types of Mental Illnesses Mental illness is divided up into two categories of mental illness Psychosis and Neurosis. Psychosis is an extreme mental illness where the individual loses touch with reality an example would be Schizophrenia. These mental illnesses can be treated and controlled with medication but will never be fully cured. Neurosis is a mild mental disorder that can be treated and cured with medication and therapy an example of this would be depression, and anxiety disorders. Within

Increase Of Working Memory During The Same Period

increase of working memory during the same period (Jha, 2010). The study also found that in addition to the gains in working memory capacity, the group that meditated had increased self-reported positive affect. Positive affect is how we experience feelings and emotions, in other words it is our moods. Because affect is a psycho-physiological construct that involves alertness and motivational intensity, the benefits of mindful meditation on positive affect is invaluable for a soldier’s effectiveness. Cognitive Flexibility Cognitive flexibility like working memory is part of the higher-order cognition of executive functioning. The definition of cognitive flexibility varies slightly depending on the viewpoint, but they all address the main point of having the ability to adjust situational thinking. The ability to control thinking has significant importance because it directly affects the ability to bypass the automatic pathways of prior learning and look at things from a different perspective. Cognitive flexibility not only includes the ability to change thoughts about something, but it also allows for changing what is thought about. Essentially, it permits the redirecting of attention in response to changes in stimuli, rules or demands. Greater cognitive flexibility also increases the capability of simultaneously attending to two aspects of a situation. While investigating the benefits of mindful meditation, researchers found, â€Å"Based on our own data, we mayShow MoreRela tedSleep And Slow Wave Sleep Essay1621 Words   |  7 Pagesimproves procedural memory, i.e. skills and procedures [1,2] as well as declarative memory [3]. REM and slow-wave sleep (SWS) have been implicated in memory consolidation [3–5]. Lack of REM sleep is associated with poor recall of visual location [6]. Decline in declarative memory consolidation is correlated with a decline in slow-wave sleep [7]. Spencer et al. observed similar initial procedural learning in older and younger adults; however, the older adults’ performance did not improve followingRead MoreSleep Is A Condition Of Body And Mind1230 Words   |  5 Pagesepisode (Carskadon Dement 2011). Memory is defined as a behavioral change caused by an experience. Declarative memory is available to our consciousness, and concerns events and facts. Procedural memory, on the other hand, is not available to our consciousness, and is the memory that is needed to use a previously learned skill (Okano, Hirano Balaban, 2000, p.12403). In the second edition of Learning and Memory, short-term memory, also known as working memory, is defined as a hypothetical systemRead MoreMaple School Should Allow Their Students to Chew Gum During Class642 Words   |  3 Pagestest scores, memory, and concentration in school. Theres only one issue for some students, their school doesnt allow them to chew gum. Maple school doesnt allow their students to chew gum during class, but knowing all the benefits it can bring, it is absurd that they don’t allow it. Maple school should allow their students to chew gum during class. One reason students at Maple school should chew gum during class is that studies have found that if you chew the same flavor gum during a test, thatRead MoreChildhood Memory And Attention As Predictors Of Academic Growth Trajectories1269 Words   |  6 PagesChildhood Memory and Attention as Predictors of Academic Growth Trajectories Memory plays a very important role in our academic growth and improving our skills. The purpose of this paper is to review a study by Stipek Valentino (2015), which examines associations between attention and memory and academic skill development. Stipek Valentino (2015) used longitudinal data from the children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to measure how well attention and short-term and working memory inRead MoreSleep : Memory And Memory1694 Words   |  7 PagesEnhances Memory When the brain first encounters an idea, thought, image, experience, or action it works to form or encode a memory. There are many different kinds of memories that can be formed. Each must be consolidated in order to remain a stable memory. All five stages of sleep support some phase of learning and memory (Poe, Walsh, Bjorness, 2010). This article discusses the different types of memory, stages of sleep, and what occurs that potentially strengthens memory while sleeping. Memory SensoryRead MoreAerobic Exercise Training1263 Words   |  6 Pageswill be correlated with improvements in the functions the hippocampal region is involved in. Particularly, exercise will develop young individuals ´ memory consolidation, a process through which memories are stabilized in the long-term, but also the long-term potentiation phenomenon of it. This means a better capacity for converting short-term memories and information into long-term ones. It is also predicted that depression scores and risks of falling into a depressive mental disease will be lowerRead MoreChild Maltreatment And Its Effects On Children1373 Words   |  6 PagesMemory is the blueprint of an individual’s development and growth. Repeated experiences of things taken granted – such as learning to walk and learning to speak and write to express oneself – become encoded to ensure a smooth flow of information that help us adapt to the environment. However, children’s exposure t o environmental stressors, depending on the exposure frequency and intensity, may impair the normal development of memory in children. This paper will evaluate the role of child maltreatmentRead MoreSleep Deprivation Is A Wide Spread Phenomenon1277 Words   |  6 Pagesshort-term recall and working memory performances, reduced learning (acquisition) in cognitive tasks, deterioration of tasks requiring divergent thinking, increased effort to remain behaviorally effective, performance deterioration as task duration increases, and loss of situational awareness. When sleep deprivation occurs through acute total sleep deprivation or chronic partial sleep restriction attention (particularly vigilance) and working memory are considerably reduced. Long-term memory and decisionRead MoreDaily Napping To Keep You Happy.With Only 24 Hours In A1260 Words   |  6 Pageswork, and social lives, while leaving in some room to eat and sleep. This lack of sleep can lead to a decrease in focus and me mory retention, as well as an increase in stress, and serious health risks. It’s no secret that many teenagers and adults are heavily sleep deprived, but no one seems to be addressing that issue. To promote physical well-being and improve mood and memory, schools and workplaces should adjusts their schedules to accommodate naps. To many adults and teenagers, naps are a giftRead MoreYour Ability To Use Your Short Term Memory When Emotions1014 Words   |  5 PagesYour Ability to Use Your Short Term Memory When Emotions Cloud Judgement: Short Term Memory and Emotions When using short term memory a topic or a picture can be forgotten within minutes. Then when an event that causes a positive or negative emotion occurs that creates dissonance. Short term memory recall can be important in some situations that are out of our control. When piecing together what the best emption to have when trying to recall

Developing Role of Educational Psychologists

Question: Discuss about theDeveloping Role of Educational Psychologists. Answer: Introduction Education is the way by which the individual will gain the distinctiveness in the process of interaction. With education, the individual can be able to differentiate in between the true or false, right or wrong or good or bad. The increase in the distinctiveness of the individual shows his or her psychology (Fallon, Woods Rooney, 2010). The term psychology here means the study of the science of behaviour. In the interaction process, the education and psychology play a major role in winding up the links between the education and psychology. While studying the interaction process, these two processes make the people think, feel and know the way of action (Lewis, 2001). The studying of an educational psychology of the individual makes the understanding of the behavioural actions of the individual. Area of Research In this context, the research is being carried out upon the study of the relationship between the education and psychology in the process of interaction. The research has to be undergone to make the clarification of the concept of educational psychology (Fischer, Schult Hell, 2013). This phenomenon is said to be the systematic study of the growth of a child in the educational point of view. Further in the research the relationship between the education and the psychology also must be studied (Park, Denson Bowman, 2012). Therefore this particular area of research comes up with a question that can be the wide field of psychology can be applied to the practical field of education. The dealing of the two particular fields in this research will help in promoting the level of human action and interaction (Norwich, 2002). These two factors deal with the concerning with the human ends and the ways of promotion. Along with that, it is also proven that the psychology has the great influence on the education since a long times creating the impact on the process of interaction. Again like every area of research have the inclusion of the issues, so this research upon the relationship between the education and psychology has an issue solving which there will have the establishment of the phenomenon of educational psychology during the interaction procedure (Riddell Tett, 2003). Question Raised During the Research The main problem statement raised in the research is an elaborate description of the ideology that is useful in dealing the educational psychology which will be further helpful in interpreting the behaviour of the individual (Furham, 2012). Also along with that, the statement demands the whole description of the research idea that is involved in the process of interaction or learning process. Evidences of Research As in the book of Education and Psychology in Interaction: Working with Uncertainty in Interconnected Fields, contains in-depth knowledge of the relationship between the education and psychology. Along with that, the book gives the comprehensive historical, social and ideological analysis of the interaction procedure (Lievens Sackett, 2012). The author also said in the book that the themes of the research are interconnected. Similarly, the research is very well described in the book of Research and Evaluation in Education and Psychology of the fourth edition (Mertens, 2014). The other articles also show the evidences of the research work for the description of educational psychology (Norwich, 2002). The article by Riddell Tett gives the report on the perception of interaction in the process of distance education. Similarly, the Sullivan et al. gave the description of the model of interaction in the real life situation including the psychology and education (Riddell Tett, 2003). Li kewise, Norwich had described regarding the abilities of the motivation in the integrated interaction in their paper (Norwich, 2002). The developments in the mode of interaction in the distance education are also described by Lewis focusing on the social, economic and pedagogical impact of interaction in the distance education (Lewis, 2001). Similarly, the other related theories of the development of interactions in different fields are described by Fallon, Woods Rooney. Along with them Lewis also described the quality of interaction in the discussion (Fallon, Woods Rooney, 2010). Reference: Fallon, K., Woods, K. and Rooney, S., 2010. A discussion of the developing role of educational psychologists within Childrens Services.Educational Psychology in Practice,26(1), pp.1-23. Fischer, F.T., Schult, J. and Hell, B., 2013. Sex-specific differential prediction of college admission tests: A meta-analysis.Journal of Educational Psychology,105(2), p.47 Furham, A., 2012. Culture shock.Journal of Psychology and Education,7(1), pp.9-22 Lewis, A., 2001. Education and psychology in interaction: Working with uncertainty in interconnected fields.British Journal of Educational Psychology,71, p.360. Lievens, F. and Sackett, P.R., 2012. The validity of interpersonal skills assessment via situational judgment tests for predicting academic success and job performance.Journal of Applied Psychology,97(2), p.460. Mertens, D.M., 2014.Research and evaluation in education and psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Sage publications. Norwich, B., 2002.Education and psychology in interaction: Working with uncertainty in interconnected fields. Routledge. Park, J.J., Denson, N. and Bowman, N.A., 2012. Does socioeconomic diversity make a difference? Examining the effects of racial and socioeconomic diversity on the campus climate for diversity.American Educational Research Journal, p.00028312124682 Riddell, S. and Tett, L. eds., 2003.Education, social justice and inter-agency working: joined up or fractured policy?. Routledge.

Physics Pre-AP Projectile Motion Lab Report Essay Example

Physics: Pre-AP Projectile Motion Lab Report Paper Retract the lever on the launcher so that the marble launches into the air. Remember where the marble lands, and place a piece of tin foil around the spot where it landed. Place the measuring sticks in a line so that the placement of the marble can be easily recorded. Put the marble back into the launcher and push it into the launcher with the pencil until you can hear one click. Launch the marble and, using the tin foil, find the indentation where the marble landed. Record how far away the marble landed from the launcher. Repeat steps 1-8 for 45 degrees and 60 degrees. Data Trial 300 450 600 1 1. Mm 1. Mm 1. Mm 21. Mm 1. Mm 1. Mm 31. Mm 1. Mm 1. Mm Calculations Original Formula: Rearranged Formula: vow-v Calculations for 300 Ova v = 3. Mm/s Calculations for 450 bob 3. Mm/s Calculations for 600 Voce Conclusion After being launched, the marble moved in a parabolic motion. During this motion, the Vs.. Of the marble remained constant, while the Ivy of the marble creased until the very top of the parabola, where it was O. Arching down the parabola, the Ivy increased. Basing off my knowledge of physics, the relationship between a projectile and its angle depends on how large the angle is: the larger the angle, the shorter the distance between the launcher and the landing point. The smaller, the larger. Based on this lab, the results were inconsistent: the marble landed farthest away from the launcher when angled at 45 degrees, and landed the same distance away from the launcher at 30 and 60 degrees. We will write a custom essay sample on Physics: Pre-AP Projectile Motion Lab Report specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Physics: Pre-AP Projectile Motion Lab Report specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Physics: Pre-AP Projectile Motion Lab Report specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Two angles are complimentary if they, when added together, equal 90 degrees. The Vow for each angle was slightly different because of gravity: as the angle of the launcher was raised to 45 and 60 degrees, both the marble and the launcher were being affected by gravity at different angles from before, thus causing slight differences in the results of the lab. Possible sources of error might include air friction and inconsistent launches due to imperfections in the launcher.

Who Invented Catseye Road Studs - Percy Shaw

Who Invented Catseye Road Studs - Percy Shaw Percy Shaw (1890-1976) was an English inventor best known for inventing cats eye road studs in 1934. Cats eyes are the road reflectors which help drivers see the road in the fog or at night. In 1947, British Labor Junior Transport Minister Jim Callaghan introduced cats eyes on British roads. Percy Shaw Manufacturer and inventor Percy Shaw was born on April 15, 1890, in Halifax, England. After attending the Boothtown boarding school, Percy Shaw began working as a laborer at a blanket mill at the age of thirteen, however, he studied shorthand and bookkeeping at night school. He started a repair business with his father fixing rollers, which evolved into a path and driveway building business. He designed a miniature motorized roller to aid him in building driveways and paths.​ Cats Eye Road Studs The area in which Percy Shaw lived was prone to fog and the local roads were often hazardous for motorists. Shaw decided to invent reflecting studs that would be set into the surface of unlit roads. He was inspired by the reflection of car headlights in road signs. In fact, he based the idea on another invention- reflective road signs that had been patented in 1927. Percy Shaw patented his Maltese cross-shaped road studs (U.K patent #436,290 and #457,536) and trademarked the name Cats Eye. He formed the Reflecting Roadstuds Ltd to manufacture the new road studs. However, sales were sluggish until the Ministry of Transport mandated Catseyes for British roads.

Battle of Arkansas Post - Civil War Battle of Arkansas Post - John McClernand

Battle of Arkansas Post - Civil War Battle of Arkansas Post - John McClernand Battle of Arkansas Post - Conflict: The Battle of Arkansas Post occurred during the American Civil War (1861-1865). Armies Commanders: Union Major General John McClernandRear Admiral David D. Porter32,000 men Confederate Brigadier General Thomas Churchill4,900 men Battle of Arkansas Post - Date: Union troops operated against Fort Hindman from January 9 to January 11, 1863. Battle of Arkansas Post - Background: While returning up the Mississippi River from his defeat at the Battle of Chickasaw Bayou in late December 1862, Major General William T. Sherman encountered the corps of Major General John McClernand. A politician turned general, McClernand had been authorized to make an attack against the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg. The senior officer, McClernand added Shermans corps to his own and continued south accompanied by gunboats commanded by Rear Admiral David D. Porter. Alerted to the capture of the steamer Blue Wing, McClernand elected to abandon his attack on Vicksburg in favor of striking at Arkansas Post. Situated at a bend in the Arkansas River, Arkansas Post was manned by 4,900 men under Brigadier General Thomas Churchill, with defenses centered on Fort Hindman. Though a convenient base for raiding shipping on the Mississippi, the principal Union commander in the area, Major General Ulysses S. Grant, did not feel that it warranted shifting forces from efforts against Vicksburg to capture. Disagreeing with Grant and hoping to win glory for himself, McClernand diverted his expedition through the White River Cutoff and approached Arkansas Post on January 9, 1863. Battle of Arkansas Post - McClernand Lands: Alerted to McClernands approach, Churchill deployed his men to a series of rifle pits approximately two mile north of Fort Hindman with the goal of slowing the Union advance. A mile away, McClernand landed the bulk of his troops at Nortrebe’s Plantation on the north bank, while ordering a detachment to advance along the south shore. With the landings completed by 11:00 AM on January 10, McClernand began moving against Churchill. Seeing that he was badly outnumbered, Churchill fell back to his lines near Fort Hindman around 2:00. Battle of Arkansas Post - The Bombardment Begins: Advancing with his assault troops, McClernand was not in position to attack until 5:30. Porters ironclads Baron DeKalb, Louisville, and Cincinnati opened the battle by closing and engaging Fort Hindmans guns. Firing for several hours, the naval bombardment did not cease until after dark. Unable to attack in the darkness, the Union troops spent the night in their positions. On January 11, McClernand used the morning meticulously arranging his men for the assault on Churchills lines. At 1:00 PM, Porters gunboats returned to action with the support of artillery that had been landed on the south shore. Battle of Arkansas Post - The Assault Goes In: Firing for three hours, they effectively silenced the forts guns. As the guns fell silent, the infantry moved forward against the Confederate positions. Over the next thirty minutes, little progress was made as several intense firefights developed. At 4:30, with McClernand planning another massive assault, white flags began appearing along the Confederate lines. Taking advantage, the Union troops quickly seized the position and accepted the Confederate surrender. After the battle, Churchill firmly denied authorizing his men to capitulate. Aftermath of the Battle of Arkansas Post: Loading the captured Confederate on transports, McClernand had them sent north to prison camps. After ordering his men to raze Fort Hindman, he dispatched a sortie against South Bend, AR and began making plans with Porter for a move against Little Rock. Learning of McClernands diversion of forces to Arkansas Post and his intended Little Rock campaign, an irate Grant countermanded McClernands orders and demanded that he return with both corps. Given no choice, McClernand embarked his men and rejoined the main Union effort against Vicksburg. Considered an ambitious dilettante by Grant, McClernand was relieved later in the campaign. The fighting at Arkansas Post cost McClernand 134 killed, 898 wounded, and 29 missing, while Confederate estimates list 60 killed, 80 wounded, and 4,791 captured. Selected Sources CWSAC Battle Summaries: Battle of Arkansas PostNational Park Service: Arkansas Post

Firewalls Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Firewalls - Essay Example (2013). Performance and Information Security Evaluation with Firewalls. International Journal Of Security & Its Applications, 7(6), 355-372. doi:10.14257/ijsia.2013.7.6.36 8 A firewall is a device (it could be software or hardware system) that disallows any illegitimate access towards or from a network. (Davis et al.,  2011, p.  xx-xx) Firewalls can be employed in either software or hardware or by combining both of them. Today firewalls are mostly configured to stop unauthorized access from the internet to the private local area networks (LANs) connected with the internet. Firewalls are configured to monitor all the data that enters or leaves the Intranet. It examines every packet and drops those that do not fulfill security standards set by network security engineers. Packet filtering firewall is one of the basic firewall that works on transport and network layer of TCP/IP layering model. (In Vacca,  2014, p.  152-153)A packet filtering firewall monitors packets that are coming in or going out of the network. It accepts or rejects packets on the basis of criteria defined during its configuration. Filtering of packet is pretty effective and transparent to users. One main disadvantage of packet filtering is that it is hard to configure.   1. IP-address of the source. Thick check should be made essentials as most of time IP spoofers change the source IP to show the source of the packet from somewhere else, instead of showing the original source. Application level firewall is generally an application specific firewall. It is configured with a set of application-specific rules that can give control over the network traffic of on the user’s level. (Kizza,  2014, p.  134-135) The main functionality of application layer firewall is to manage internet browsing, filtering emails and its attachment, and transferring of files. Traffic coming inside the network or going outside the network can be denied or allowed on the basis of the different set rules. These rules

Business Plan for Kidwatchers Daycare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business Plan for Kidwatchers Daycare - Essay Example The educational experience in the thirteen staff members complemented with two qualified nurses is expected to deliver the needed intense care to the children. The motive intended to be presented seeks a target of children under the age of 6 years with minimum 4 years, and the attention advanced with registration of a maximum 20 children. The legislation is also expected to help establish a stable society through the necessity of the legal documents on legislation. The budget needed to construct the facility will be directed towards installing safety precautions that are approved by government policies to pass the safety test. Furthermore, the administration expects to drive confidence from the Short Hill community through the administration of affordable registration charges to deliver the goal that seeks to deliver quality services at an affordable fee. Mission The leading mission of the daycare facility will be to generate an effective and efficient environment to develop the inte llectual skills of the delicate members of the community. Kidwatchers expects to achieve this through engaging children in activities that drive fun and involvement without driving the difficulty in task completion. The majority of the focus would be issued in driving fun and a lasting impression of the kids mind and fulfilling the goal of entertainment provision in the facility. These are to be achieved though games, art classes, music lessons and tours of the famous spots in the community. Kidwatchers also offers basic recreational activities through children channels and involvement of parent-children sessions to increase bonding (Greene 78). Objective Gain popularity in Short Hill region after six months of establishment Create creative children as they are prepared for preschool education Expand the facility to occupy more children admission by the end of the first year Maintain the regulation of the financial returns to increase funding to the facility Industrial Analysis The education industry in Short Hills has embraced the advanced trend in the educational sector through observing technological advances. The Short Hill association has offered the need to incorporate computers and other learning aids within the process, although the emphasis is accorded to the traditional teaching measures in including teachers in the learning organization. The industry is composed of all public and private schools that strive towards delivering quality education to their students. The common factor incorporated in the kindergartens in the region includes offering, affordable quality, education for the vulnerable groups within the Short Hill community. The other alternative offered to supplement daycare education has been the increased in qualified nurses that deliver the needed care for children in the community. The other established competitors have gained funding from investors who seek to generate preference and popularity in New Jersey. Legal Structure The Depart ment of Children and Families (DCF) has been charged with the regulation of the daycare facilities and areas that are tasked with the responsibility of managing children affairs within New Jersey (DHS). The organization inspects the activities of a licensed facility to ensure the safety precautions are implemented in the required provision. The system dictates the provision of the licensing program that is offered to the most qualified institution to

Bus Reservation System Essay Example for Free

Bus Reservation System Essay Traveling is a large growing business in Pakistan and other countries. Bus reservation system deals with maintenance of records of details of each passenger who had reserved a seat for a journey. It also includes maintenance of information like schedule and details of each bus. We observed the working of the Bus reservation system and after going through it, we get to know that there are many operations, which they have to do manually. It takes a lot of time and causes many errors. Due to this, sometimes a lot of problems occur and they were facing many disputes with customers. To solve the above problem, and further maintaining records of items, seat availability for customers, price of per seat, bill generation and other things, we are offering this proposal of reservation system. By using this software, we can reserve tickets from any part of the world, via internet. This project provides and checks all sorts of constraints so that user does give only useful data and thus validation is done in an effective way. 2. INTRODUCTION Our project is to computerize traveling company to manage data, so that all the transactions become fast and there should not be any error in transaction like calculation mistake, bill generation and other things. It replaces all the paper work. It keeps records of all bills also, giving to ensure 100% successful implementation of the computerized Bus reservation system. Our reservation system has three modules. First module helps the customer to enquire the availability of seats in a particular bus at particular date. Second module helps him to reserve a ticket. Using third module he can cancel a reserved ticket. 3. SYSTEM STUDY System study aims at establishing requests for the system to be acquired, development and installed. It involves studying and analyzing the ways of an organization currently processing the data to produce information. Analyzing the problem thoroughly forms the vital part of the system study. In system analysis, prevailing situation of problem is carefully examined by breaking them into sub problems. Problematic areas are identified and information is collected. Data gathering is essential to any analysis of requests. It is necessary that this analysis familiarizes the designer with objectives, activities and the function of the organization in which the system is to be implemented. 3.1. Study of existing system * Existing system is totally on book and thus a great amount of manual work has to be done. The amount of manual work increases exponentially with increase in bus services. * Needs a lot of working staff and extra attention on all the records. * In existing system, there are various problems like keeping records of items, seats available, prices of per/seat and fixing bill generation on each bill. * Finding out details regarding any information is very difficult, as the user has to go through all the books manually. * Major problem was the lack of security.

Naturalistic Ethic Essay -- Naturalism Nature Essays

Naturalistic Ethic Even though there are several schools of Naturalistic ethic, they all have one major quality in common – recognition of Nature as the main guiding force of our lives. Naturalists try to understand Nature and how Nature and humanity are linked together. Adherents of Naturalism try to convince people to shift their attitude toward the need to follow the laws of nature as a principle of moral conduct. There are three major schools of Naturalism. The first school strives for â€Å"returning back to nature† in order to enjoy a simple life and find out the truth by communion with nature, which is considered to be the teacher for all people. The second school recognizes that the Nature has inner soul. For example, stoics believed that Nature possesses rational (comprehensible by human mind) and positive divine power and all events in people’s lives are predetermined by it. Thus, people should give in to their fates and react in a positive and rational way toward unfores een circumstances because everything happens for a reason and for the best. The third school advocates evolutionary theory as the basis for ethical conduct. Followers of this theory argue that people should learn their behavior from the evolutionary model of natural world. Darwin’s law of survival of the fittest was applied to social context. The ethical conduct is considered to be right when people or government do not interfere to help weak â€Å"species† survive. As a result, the most developed, smart and enterprising people will prevail and as social evolution progresses, they will form a superior society. As opposed to Naturalism, the ethical theory of duty occupies a completely different domain. Immanuel Kant, the major advocate of this ethical appro... ...ity of cases (e.g. for our purpose of establishing universality). In other words, an almost-universal law is a law that would be universal if a negligible set of cases were ignored. That would seem to resolve the situations where universal moral laws contradict one another as those situations should be few and far between compared to the totality of all possible cases. That is not to say that the negligible set should contain few situations, period; only a minute part of all possible situations. This also seems to resolve the case of self-sacrifice, which, even though it looks moral in many situations, cannot be universalized. It may be argued that those many situations are still within a negligible set compared to the totality of all situations in which it is theoretically possible to practice self-sacrifice, and thus self-sacrifice as a universal law is not moral. Naturalistic Ethic Essay -- Naturalism Nature Essays Naturalistic Ethic Even though there are several schools of Naturalistic ethic, they all have one major quality in common – recognition of Nature as the main guiding force of our lives. Naturalists try to understand Nature and how Nature and humanity are linked together. Adherents of Naturalism try to convince people to shift their attitude toward the need to follow the laws of nature as a principle of moral conduct. There are three major schools of Naturalism. The first school strives for â€Å"returning back to nature† in order to enjoy a simple life and find out the truth by communion with nature, which is considered to be the teacher for all people. The second school recognizes that the Nature has inner soul. For example, stoics believed that Nature possesses rational (comprehensible by human mind) and positive divine power and all events in people’s lives are predetermined by it. Thus, people should give in to their fates and react in a positive and rational way toward unfores een circumstances because everything happens for a reason and for the best. The third school advocates evolutionary theory as the basis for ethical conduct. Followers of this theory argue that people should learn their behavior from the evolutionary model of natural world. Darwin’s law of survival of the fittest was applied to social context. The ethical conduct is considered to be right when people or government do not interfere to help weak â€Å"species† survive. As a result, the most developed, smart and enterprising people will prevail and as social evolution progresses, they will form a superior society. As opposed to Naturalism, the ethical theory of duty occupies a completely different domain. Immanuel Kant, the major advocate of this ethical appro... ...ity of cases (e.g. for our purpose of establishing universality). In other words, an almost-universal law is a law that would be universal if a negligible set of cases were ignored. That would seem to resolve the situations where universal moral laws contradict one another as those situations should be few and far between compared to the totality of all possible cases. That is not to say that the negligible set should contain few situations, period; only a minute part of all possible situations. This also seems to resolve the case of self-sacrifice, which, even though it looks moral in many situations, cannot be universalized. It may be argued that those many situations are still within a negligible set compared to the totality of all situations in which it is theoretically possible to practice self-sacrifice, and thus self-sacrifice as a universal law is not moral.

Epic Conventions Essay

1. The story beings in medias res. In Medias Res is Latin for â€Å"it begins in the middle of things† and then has flashbacks to explain action leading up to that point. In Paradise Lost, for example, the story begins after Satan and his fellow rebellious angels have been cast from heaven, by God, into Hell. The war in heaven has taken place and Satan is making plans for the ruination of the coming realm of men, Earth, particularly Eden and God’s new creatures, Adam and Eve. 2. The story begins with an invocation (prayer) to a god or gods. The poet, Milton, attempts to recapture the Homeric tradition of reciting an epic poem to an audience, say at a feast. To that end he begins by calling for a blessing – for the Christian god whom he refers to in pagan terms as the â€Å"Heav’nly Muse,† Milton invokes the pagan ideology that the called upon god or muse came into the man therefore it was not the poet who recited, but the god in the poet’s body. Poet’s, then, were considered very sacred, for they could call down a god and have the god in them, at least temporarily. We continue to have the remnants of this belief, of course. We often think of poets or of any true artist as being different or touched by a special hand. In the case of the beginning of Paradise Lost, the poet says something like â€Å"Sing Heav’nly Muse†¦ say first what cause moved our grand parents in that happy state †¦ to fall off from their creator† 3. The story begins with a statement of theme. Always, because these poems are so long and so complex, although the basic stories would have been familiar to the audiences, the poet would begin with announcing what the recitation was to be about. That way, everyone could focus on and appreciate, not so much WHAT was being said, but the WAY THAT IT WAS PRESENTED. In essence, Milton’s Paradise Lost retells the story of Genesis but presents it as an epic poem. We are no stranger to that concept; we go to concerts where we may already know all of the song. So, we go to hear the presentation of the songs, which add to our concepts of the meaning and significance of those songs. 4. The story has many epithets. These epithets are re-naming of the characters, gods, or things by stock phrases. An example is the renaming of Satan as â€Å"th’ Arch-Enemy†, â€Å"th’ apostate angel†, â€Å"O Prince† or â€Å"O Chief of many throned Powers† and even â€Å"fall’n Cherub. † It is important for us to notice these epithets, first, because they add description, and second, because we get confused about who is doing what if we do not recognize the epithets as well as the names. 5. The story uses catalogues of things and characters; there are many lists, both long and short. Just as the Old Testament has catalogues of genealogies – you remember all those begets – just so do ancient epics keep track of the lists of history. In both Book One and Book Two of Paradise Lost, for example, there is a list of the principal angels who fell from grace as Satan’s compatriots. Also listed are their various names and places where they will be worshipped as gods of pagan faiths. 6. There are long formal speeches by many characters. You will not have any trouble spotting these. Sometimes they happen in the heat of battle and other seemingly inappropriate times, but more often they occur at various kinds of meetings, as in an assembly of chieftains. Book One of Paradise Lost is filled with such formal speeches, key among them Satan’s with his famous line â€Å"better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heav’n. † 7. Gods intervene in the affairs of human beings in these stories. For example, in Book Seven of Paradise Lost, Cherubim, Ithuriel and Zephon, sent by God to Eden, find Satan, â€Å"squat like a toad, close at the ear of Eve. † They confront him before more damage is done in terms of corrupting Eve. 8. Epics frequently have epic digressions. These are passages that do not further the action of the story because they are asides or because they are repetitions. Remember that these recitations did not have TV replay shots. The audience had to remember a vast amount of material, so redundancy or reminding them of background material would have been helpful to them. For example, In Book Seven of paradise Lost, Adam’s conversation with the angel Raphael becomes, in some instances, a recounting of Genesis and even digresses into the topic of angel’s mating habits. Yet another use for the digression is to provide a prologue of sorts, as an introduction seems overlooked due to the epic convention of beginning the poem in medias res. Also this aside more firmly orients the poem’s audience, given its vast setting, the cosmos. 9. The settings of these stories are vast. Paradise Lost is concerned with the mortal geocentric universe, from Hell to Chaos to the Earthly and Heavenly planes. The stories use the epic simile. An epic simile is a long comparison of two things that are in different classes. They make vivid an image and describes or clarifies. An example can be found in the extensive comparison of Satan, a fallen angel formerly the epitome of celestial light and beauty, to one of the Titans Briareos, whom led the revolt of the Titans against Zeus. Like Briareos, Satan is a vast creature covered in darkness. He is likened to Leviathan, a sea-beast, concealed in the ocean’s dark depths, or an illusory island hidden in the dark. But the great Leviathan, possibly the whale in Jonah’s unfortunate encounter, can rise from the imprisoning dark or return to it after becoming beached upon shore. Satan rose from the depths of Hell to enter Eden, though he could not of course remain. 10. The heroes embody the values of their civilization. In Milton’s time the medieval practice of physiognomy was still much employed. After Chaucer’s example in the Canterbury Tales, physical facade’s, particularly the face, are believed expressions of a person’s internal moral state. For example, much is made of Satan’s former beauty, an expression of the former purity of his ethical and moral internal being. His former beauty and grace, expressed in terms of light and luster become dim in his confrontation with Ithuriel and Zephon, Cherubim, formerly of a lesser angelic order than Satan, who still in the service of God retain that luminosity of his grace. Paradoxically, the description of Satan as a monstrous, leviathan-like figure is juxtaposed in the poem with his nearly angelic appearance. Fittingly, since Milton’s time, physiognomy has fallen out of usage, as many accept evil and malicious intent often has a comely facade.

Planning Function within the Different Levels of Management in Organizations Essay

Management of a business involves the four general functions of making plans, organizing, exercising leadership, and fostering coordination. Planning constitutes the process of determining goals and objectives, identifying strategies and techniques, and accessing or allocating the necessary resources to support implementation. Plans integrate the competencies and resources of the organization relative to the map of the actions designed and intended to achieve goals and objectives. Daft, 2000) As a fundamental management process, planning occurs at the different levels of the business organization. Planning at Different Levels of Management Management levels can be hierarchical or functional. Hierarchical levels of management refer to the chain of command in the organizational structure reflecting the designation of decision-making, reporting and accountability. Functional levels of management pertain to management roles according to function. Daft, 2000) Generally, there are two hierarchical levels of management, the senior management and front line management. Senior management takes charge of strategic planning since the focus is conceptual, directional and visionary plans encompassing the direction of future actions, the expected outcomes, the availability and utilization of resources, and contingency ideas for issues likely to emerge. The thrust of planning at this level is long-term outcomes. Front line management handles operational planning because the focus is specific, measurable, tactical, and applicable plans covering daily activities and issues such as task assignments, quotas, deadlines, funding, and other day-to-day issues requiring planning. The focus of front line management planning is short-term expectations and outcomes. Although differing in the nature of planning functions, strategic plans provide guidance to operations plan while operational plans influence future strategic planning. Daft, 2000) Functional management involves a wide network of horizontal and vertical levels usually designated into departments and sub-departments or working teams distinguished according to functions. There could be a number of departments in an organization including sales or marketing departments, purchasing department, accounting department, human resources department, and other departments depending on the nature, scope and scale of operation of the business organizatio n. Planning at the department level depends on the respective functions so that the scope of planning covers the designated functions. The sales or marketing department focuses on marketing planning and advertising planning covering goals such as brand equity building, value creation for consumers, distribution, promotional plans, and pricing. The human resource department engages in leadership development, management development, career development, performance, staffing, and training and development planning. The other departments take charge of planning on other function areas. Daft, 2000) The functions of these departments are interconnected since planning done by the marketing department has a link to the competence of human resources especially leadership. Within the departments is a hierarchy, with department managers or directors handling strategic planning and the managers of the different sub-departments or working teams handling operational planning with the plans focusing on functions. Integration of Various Kinds of Plans The overlap between hierarchical and functional management planning reflects the interconnections of various plans. There are also a number of practical reasons for integrating different plans. One is the need to translate a vision and goal into action to support fulfillment (Griffin & Thomas, 1999). In the case of strategic and operational plans, strategic plans are conceptual in nature providing a guide or picture of the expected outcome while operational plans are practical by focusing on particular actions and techniques that support movement towards the achievement of envisioned concepts (Daft, 2000). As such, integrating strategic and operational plans ensure that action finds guidance from the vision and goals translate into specific actions directed towards actualization. Another is the likely interconnectedness of plans. With regard to functional management, a plan requires alignment with other plans to ensure successful realization. (Griffin & Thomas, 1999). Customer service forms part of marketing planning and human resource planning so that training plans under the HR department should coincide with marketing plans for value creation. Last is the essence of organizations as a single unit made up of different parts that need to work together to sustain the body. Successful organizations are those with aligned or integrated plans. Real Life Application Successful planning doe not only require integration but also relevance to changing market conditions. Strategic plans could change in order to make the organization more responsive to issues. An example is the shift in the strategic plan of Wal-Mart from the vision of a retail store offering the lowest prices to consumers to a store providing employment to thousands of people in impoverished areas (Wal-Mart, 2008). This came as a response to the corporate social responsibility issue of its payment of wages below the minimum wage and resistance to the call of worker groups for unionization. By shifting its strategic plan, Wal-Mart reaffirms its commitment to corporate social responsibility by helping impoverished families with jobs created by establishing stores in these communities. By focusing strategic plans towards communities, the company is able to express its concern not only towards consumers but also to its present and future employees who are members of the community. Conclusion Planning is an important aspect of organizational management. To succeed in planning, it is important to understand how planning occurs at the different management levels of the organization, the importance of integrative planning, and the consideration relevant and responsive planning by adjusting to changes in business context.

Discussing Temperatures in Spanish

Discussing Temperatures in Spanish The most common way of indicating temperature in Spanish is to use a form of estar a followed by the number of degrees (grados). Estar is a verb that typically means to be. Expressions Used With  Temperature In the present tense, it is usual to use the phrase estamos a (literally, we are) to discuss the temperature being experienced by the speaker and the persons around him or her. Est a (literally, it is) is used to discuss the temperature of other places. See the following examples: Estamos a 30 grados. (Its 30 degrees.)Si la temperatura est a 2 grados o ms, los nià ±os juegan afuera excepto si llueve o nieve. (If the temperature is 2 degrees or higher, the children play outside unless its raining or snowing.)Estamos a 10 bajo cero. (Its 10 below zero.)Hace una semana estaban a 30 grados, pero ahora estamos a 10. (A week ago it was 30 degrees, but now its 10.) ¡Cuntas veces el aire est a 15 grados mientras que el agua est a 17! (How often the air is 15 degrees while the water is 17!) Temperatures can be discussed in other ways. As in the following examples, the temperature is frequently preceded by a preposition: Oscila entre 8 y 20 grados centà ­grados. (Temperatures vary between 8 and 20 degrees Celsius. You also could use the phrase grados Celsius here.)Colocar en horno a 200 grados durante 15 minutos. (Set in a 200-degree oven for 15 minutes.)El agua del mar Mediterrneo alcanza los 32 grados de temperatura. (The water of the Mediterranean Sea reaches a temperature of 32 degrees.)Las bacterias se reproducen a una temperatura entre 20 y 30 grados. (The bacteria reproduce at a temperature of 20 to 30 degrees.)Una temperatura normal del cuerpo humano es aquella que se encuentra entre los 36,6 grados y los 37 grados. (A normal temperature for the human body is one between 36.6 and 37 degrees.)Tenà ­a una temperatura de 36.8 grados. (She had a temperature of 36.8 degrees.) Metric System Widely Used Keep in mind that most of the Spanish-speaking world (indeed, nearly the entire world) uses temperatures in Celsius rather than the Fahrenheit youre used to if you live in the United States. To convert temperatures from Fahrenheit to Celsius, subtract 32 and multiply the result by 0.555 (or five-ninths). To convert temperatures from Celsius to Fahrenheit, multiply the temperature by 1.8 and add 32. Mathematically, the formulas look like this: C 5(F-32)/9F 9C/5 32 If you try these formulas, youll find that a body temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit is the same as 37 degrees Celsius, and vice versa. And the 200-degree oven in one of the examples above is the same as one thats set at a bit under 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Approximating Temperatures Of course, mathematical precision isnt always necessary. Heres one way to think of temperatures in Celsius. Of course, you may see it differently if you come from an extreme climate: -20 degrees C or below (-4 degrees F or below): frigid (muy frà ­o).-20 to 0 degrees C (-4 to 32 degrees F): cold (frà ­o).0 to 10 degrees C (32 to 50 degrees F): cool (fresco).10 to 20 degrees C (50 to 68 degrees F): mild (templado).20 to 30 degrees C (68 to 86 degrees F): warm (caliente).30 to 40 degrees C (86 to 104 degrees F): hot (muy caliente).40 degrees C and above (104 degrees F and above): unbearably hot (insoportablemente caliente). Temperature-Related Vocabulary Here are some words and phrases that may come in handy when discussing temperatures: calor asfixiante o calor abrasador (scorching or blistering heat) - El cuerpo ve el calor asfixiante como una amenaza y reacciona aumentando el estrà ©s. (The body sees scorching heat as a danger and reacts with increased stress.) frà ­o intenso (bitter cold) - Por frà ­o intenso activan alerta roja en cinco ciudades. (They are activating a red alert in five cities because of the bitter cold.) ola de calor (heat wave) - Hay una advertencia meteorolà ³gica por ola de calor en el centro y norte del Uruguay. (There is a meteorological warning for a heat wave in central and northern Uruguay.) ola de frà ­o (cold snap) - Una ola de frà ­o sin precedentes dejà ³ ms de 20 muertos. (An unprecedented cold snap left more than 20 dead.)

Battle of Zama in the Punic Wars

Battle of Zama in the Punic Wars The Battle of Zama was the deciding engagement of the Second Punic War (218-201 BC) between Carthage and Rome and was fought in late October 202 BC. After a string of early Carthaginian victories in Italy, the Second Punic War settled into a stalemate with Hannibals armies in Italy unable to deliver a deathblow again the Romans. Recovering from these setbacks, Roman forces achieved some success in Iberia before launching an invasion of North Africa. Led by Scipio Africanus, this army engaged a Carthaginian force led by Hannibal at Zama in 202 BC. In the resulting battle, Scipio defeated his famous foe and forced Carthage to sue for peace. Fast Facts: Battle of Zama Conflict: Second Punic War (218-201 BC)Dates: 202 BCArmies Commanders:CarthageHannibalapprox. 36,000 infantry4,000 cavalry80 elephantsRomeScipio Africanus29,000 infantry6,100 cavalryCasualties:Carthage: 20-25,000 killed, 8,500-20,000 capturedRome Allies: 4,000-5,000 Background With the beginning of the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the Carthaginian general Hannibal boldly crossed the Alps and attacked into Italy. Achieving victories at Trebia (218 BC) and Lake Trasimene (217 BC), he swept aside armies led by  Tiberius Sempronius Longus and  Gaius Flaminius Nepos. In the wake of these triumphs, he marched south looting the country and attempting to force Romes allies to defect to Carthages side. Stunned and in crisis from these defeats, Rome appointed Fabius Maximus to deal with the Carthaginian threat.   Hannibal. Public Domain Avoiding battle with Hannibals army, Fabius raided the Carthaginian supply lines and practiced the form of attritional warfare that later bore his name. Rome soon proved unhappy with Fabius methods and he was replaced by the more aggressive  Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus. Moving to engage Hannibal, they were routed at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC. Following his victory, Hannibal spent the next several years attempting to build an alliance in Italy against Rome. As the war on the peninsula descended into a stalemate, Roman troops, led by Scipio Africanus, began having success in Iberia and captured large swaths of Carthaginian territory in the region. In 204 BC, after fourteen years of war, Roman troops landed in North Africa with the goal of directly attacking Carthage. Led by Scipio, they succeeded in defeating Carthaginian forces led by Hasdrubal Gisco and their Numidian allies commanded by Syphax at Utica and Great Plains (203 BC). With their situation precarious, the Carthaginian leadership sued for peace with Scipio. This offer was accepted by the Romans who offered moderate terms. While the treaty was being debated in Rome, those Carthaginians who favored continuing the war had Hannibal recalled from Italy. Scipio Africanus - detail of painting by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Scipio Africanus is shown releasing the nephew of the Prince of Nubia after he was captured by Roman soldiers. Walters Art Museum Carthage Resists During this same period, Carthaginian forces captured a Roman supply fleet in the Gulf of Tunes. This success, along with the return of Hannibal and his veterans from Italy, led to change of heart on the part of the Carthaginian senate. Emboldened, they elected to continue the conflict and Hannibal set about enlarging his army. Marching out with a total force of around 40,000 men and 80 elephants, Hannibal encountered Scipio near Zama Regia. Forming his men in three lines, Hannibal placed his mercenaries in first line, his new recruits and levies in the second, and his Italian veterans in the third. These men were supported by the elephants to the front and Numidian and Carthaginian cavalry on the flanks. Scipio's Plan To counter Hannibals army, Scipio deployed his 35,100 men in a similar formation consisting of three lines. The right wing was held by Numidian cavalry, led by Masinissa, while Laelius Roman horsemen were placed on the left flank. Aware that Hannibals elephants could be devastating on the attack, Scipio devised a new way to counter them. Though tough and strong, the elephants could not turn when they charged. Using this knowledge, he formed his infantry in separate units with gaps in between. These were filled with velites (light troops) which could move to allow the elephants to pass through. It was his goal to allow the elephants to charge through these gaps thus minimizing the damage they could inflict. Hannibal Defeated As anticipated, Hannibal opened the battle by ordering his elephants to charge the Roman lines. Moving forward, they were engaged by the Roman velites who drew them through the gaps in the Roman lines and out of the battle. In addition, Scipios cavalry blew large horns to frighten the elephants. With Hannibals elephants neutralized, he reorganized his infantry in a traditional formation and sent forward his cavalry. Attacking on both wings, the Roman and Numidian horsemen overwhelmed their opposition and pursued them from the field. Though displeased by his cavalrys departure, Scipio began advancing his infantry. This was met by an advance from Hannibal. While Hannibals mercenaries defeated the first Roman assaults, his men slowly began to be pushed back by Scipios troops. As the first line gave way, Hannibal would not allow it to pass back through the other lines. Instead, these men moved to the wings of the second line. Pressing forward, Hannibal struck with this force and a bloody fight ensued. Ultimately defeated, the Carthaginians fell back to the flanks of the third line. Extending his line to avoid being outflanked, Scipio pressed the attack against Hannibals best troops. With the battle surging back and forth, the Roman cavalry rallied and returned to the field. Charging the rear of Hannibals position, the cavalry caused his lines to break. Pinned between two forces, the Carthaginians were routed and driven from the field. Aftermath As with many battles in this period, exact casualties are not known. Some sources claim that Hannibals casualties numbered 20,000 killed and 20,000 taken prisoner, while the Romans lost around 2,500 killed and 4,000 wounded. Regardless of casualties, the defeat at Zama led to Carthage renewing its calls for peace. These were accepted by Rome, however the terms were harsher than those offered a year earlier. In addition to losing the majority of its empire, a substantial war indemnity was imposed and Carthage was effectively destroyed as a power.

ECONIMIC CONCEPTS-GLOBAL CUSTOMERS Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

ECONIMIC CONCEPTS-GLOBAL CUSTOMERS - Coursework Example This means that by resorting to produce a chicken, Michelle would forego the value of producing 4 pounds of potato. Answer 3 The opportunity cost of James of potato producing is (=40/80), i.e. ? chicken per pound of potato. Thus by producing 1 pound of potato, James would forgo the value of producing ? number of chicken per year. Answer 4 The opportunity cost of chickens production for James is (=80/40), i.e. 2 pounds of potato per chicken. This means that James would forgo the value of producing 2 pounds of potato for choosing to produce 1 chicken. Answer 5 The absolute advantage of the activities of producing potatoes and chickens by Michelle and James could be determined by comparing their production of chickens and potatoes per unit time, i.e. 1 year. This could be determined from the table given below. Â   Potatoes (pounds) Chickens (nos.) Michelle 200 50 James 80 40 It could be observed that Michelle could produce 4 pounds of potato per chicken in one year while James could pr oduce 2 pounds of potato per chicken in the same time period. For producing both potatoes and chickens, Michelle has an absolute benefit compared to James in the volume of potatoes and the number of chicken produced by them in one year. Answer 6 The comparative advantage would be attained if the opportunity cost is lower as compared to that of the others. ... This means that James have attained comparative advantage over Michelle as he has sacrificed lesser value as compared to Michelle for producing chickens. Answer 8 Assuming Michelle specializes in producing potatoes and James specializes in producing chickens, a trading rate of 2.5 pounds of potatoes in exchange of 1 unit of chicken would help to determine whether it’s better off for them. This trading rate is better than the opportunity cost of 1 chicken for 4 pounds of potato produced by Michelle. Thus Michelle would be better off in trading with his specialization. Also, the trading rate is better than 2 pounds of potato for 1 chicken produced by James. Thus James would also be better off in this situation. Answer 9 The above findings could be narrated to the business, society and the nations, at large to effect use of trade theory that explain the difference between absolute advantage and the comparative advantage. It has been observed that although James does not hold abso lute advantage in production of either potatoes or chickens, he has still been able to attain a better off position in trading of chickens. This is because James has focused on his specialized area where he holds a comparative advantage over Michelle. The same is applicable to the business, society and the nations. The business, society and the nations which lag in their production volumes per unit time as compared to others may not hold absolute advantage over others. The benefits of trade, however, do not depend on the absolute advantage but depends on the comparative advantage (Maneschi, 1998). By specializing on trade in which entities have comparative

Edvard Munch Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Edvard Munch - Research Paper Example His paintings reflect his tragedies and failures that transcribe the reality and record the impact of a personal experience. These pieces of art transmit emotional sensation as a result of the natural contemporary issues. The visionary power is enhanced by the incorporation of the lyrical and romantic aspects in his work. Munch was concerned with expressing humanity and consciousness in art by incorporating the injustices and relationships experienced by living people. The â€Å"Frieze of Life† has the sensation of love between men and women that is a force of nature (20). The painting has a narrative of awakening love that blossoms and withers, and ends with despair and death. The â€Å"Kiss† also depicts a woman and man locked in a passionate embrace. These paintings reflect the reconstituted subjectivity of the natural world where people experience love naturally and the feeling is shattered by death. Love, death, suffering, and illnesses are aspects of the current society illustrated in the work of Munch. The ability to intertwine reality and art has gained Munch popularity in modern

NAFTA - United States, Canada, and Mexico Trading Together Research Paper

NAFTA - United States, Canada, and Mexico Trading Together - Research Paper Example It was actually signed by President George H. W. Bush along with Mexican President Salinas, and Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in 1992. Ratification of the legislature by the three countries took place in 1993. By campaigning on a common market, President Ronald Reagan actually began formation of NAFTA, which lead to the passing of the Trade and Tariff Act in 1984. The act gave the president authority to negotiate the free trade, but only allowing Congress the ability to approve or disapprove. Congress was not allowed to change any negotiating factors. Canada and the United States began negotiations for the Canada and US free trade agreement, which was put into effect in 1989. This treat is now suspended due to the onset of NAFTA. Mexican President Salinas and President Bush began negotiations for a trade agreement between Mexico and the United States. History shows that Mexican tariffs on US Imports were 250 per cent higher than US tariffs on Mexican imports. Canada was the first to suggest an agreement between the three countries, which lead to NAFTA. Since the signing of the NAFTA agreement in 1994, two addenda have been added. NAFTA has linked 450 million people from differing countries producing $17 trillion worth of services and goods. NAFTA was originally signed into law for a period of 15 years. NAFTA eliminated tariffs and created an agreement based on the rights of international business investors. This reduced the cost of trade, which promotes growth and investment. Eliminating tariffs also reduces inflation by lowering the cost of imports. Some features of NAFTA that specify its purpose were to eliminate existing barriers to trade and make effective the cross-border movement of services and goods. It was also to promote an atmosphere of fair competition. This, in turn, created increased investment opportunities for all three countries. Other features included providing enforcement and protection of intellectual property rights and creating procedures for the resolution of trade disputes.     

Marriage in Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice Essay Example for Free

Marriage in Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice Essay The intricate nexus of marriage, money and love in Jane Austens society is unfolded through the development of plots and characters of her novel Pride and Prejudice. In the nineteenth centurys rural England, marriage was a womans chief aim, both financially and socially. Financially because of womens dependent position marriage was the only honourable position, infinitely preferable to the dependence of precarious shabby-genteel spinsterhood. Money was, therefore, a very significant aspect of Austens society, especially when marriage was concerned. A single man of large fortune was naturally considered as a nice thing for the unmarried girls. Partners were chosen for what might now seem unemotional reasons: fortune and connections, similar to, but preferably better than ones own. By representing a series of marriages, Austen in this novel unearths and elucidates different aspects of the role of marriage, money and love in her society. Austen was a realist and painted her time as they were. In this novel, love and money-based Darcy-Elizabeth marriage is the most successful one whereas the marriage of Elizabeths parents, Mr. and Mrs. Bennet, is one of the faulty ones. Mr. Bennet married his wife being captivated and tempted by her youth, beauty and physical appearance. He forgot that the first appeal of a pretty face does not last long unless serenity of mind and sweetness of temper provide more enduring powers of attraction. Moreover, Mrs. Bennet inherited no property. So, form every point of view, this marriage is a failure. Mr. Bennet, therefore, always has to endure her weak understanding, vulgarity to such and extreme degree that he has nothing to revel in except confining himself to his library all the day, and thus eluding the necessary rituals of family and society. Charlottes loveless matrimony for financial security with the pompous Collins is another interesting marriage. Being twenty-seven and plain looking and realizing that it is her last chance, she accepts the grotesque Mr. Collins, to whom the role of romance and love in life is beyond the reach. He only wants a wife, because in the eyes of the society it is time for him to settle and be married. Charlotte knows that apart from some kind of security and happiness, marriage gives a woman a position. She has few hopes of happiness in marriage beyond the material comfort it can give and so she marries Collins who is inferior in intelligence, only for the home and position he offers, as she believes Happiness in marriage is entirely a matter of chance. The marriage and money theme operates in a baffling way when Elizabeth herself comes to marry. When she sees Pemberly, her prejudice against Darcy begins to be subdued and later by accepting him she makes the most glorious match of and of Austens heroines. The fact that Darcy has then thousand pounds a year is not to be ignored; it emphasizes the perfect adjustment between personal and social ambition achieved by Elizabeth. [Actually Jane Austen understood better than any other of her contemporary English novelists the degree to which social and personal behaviors and even emotion depend on the economic framework of the society.] Moreover, in her marriage with Darcy, affection and understanding, financial security and social engagement are juxtaposed. But to achieve all these material things she has never turned herself into a husband-hunting butterfly despite her mothers inducement. Although she is aware of the fact that in her society a senile spinster, without any fortune, is faced with the prospect of a bleak future full of deprivation and humiliation, still she is the bold heroine who at first showed courage to refuse two marriage proposals. To Austen, sexuality was far less vital to relationships than its counterpart, affection. Therefore, Lydias ex-based marriage with the seductive but penniless Wickham later turns out to be an unsuccessful ones. Wickhams plausible appearance even overwhelmed Elizabeth once. His former interest in Miss King and her â‚ ¤ 10,000 dowry alludes to the role of money in marriage. He only takes Lydia to London only for physical enjoyment. As a consequence, their marriage ends in his going to enjoy himself in London and Lydias patent failure in managing her household financially despite Darcy and Elizabeths continuous help. The Bingley-Jane marriage is another example of good marriage, like the Darcy- Elizabeth marriage, where mutual understanding, romance and financial  stability are combined. Their affection-based marriage works as both are perfectly amiable, modest and gentle. The established marriage of the Gardiners is too shadowy to have a dramatic role. We are only dimly aware of it as a satisfactory relationship between two apparently similar type of persons. In Pride and Prejudice we experience different marriages in the light of one another. Austen presents all the material for an al-round understanding and view: Jane and Elizabeth, combing love and marriage, Charlotte marries for safety, Lydia repenting at leisure. The married couples are equally varied, from well-matched like the Gardiners to ill-suited like the Bennets. The novel says in effect that the real object of love and marriage is not only financial security or physical passion or romance, but also the self-development that true relationships bring about. A marriage can only become an institution when it provides for the fulfillment of both men and womens aspirations, sanctified by love and validated by prudence that both Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Collins can live on, the former drinking deep draughts of lifes fullness, the later continuing to sip its littleness. The richness of Pride and Prejudice lies in that exploration of life and marriage by Jane Austen.

William Harrison :: essays research papers fc

William Henry Harrison William Harrison was our 9th president. He had many accomplishments before he was president. He gave the longest inaugural speech. In 1809 William Harrison negotiated the Treaty of Fort Wayne. The treaty was an agreement between the United States and many Native American tribes. In 1811 Harrison led soldiers in the battle of Tippecanoe against a Shawnee Tribe. The Americans won the battle and he was a hero after the Battle of Tippecanoe. He was also in charge of the committee on military affairs. In 1816 he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. In 1819 he was elected to the Ohio State Senate. In 1825 he was elected to the U.S. Senate. He then was named minister of a South American country called Columbia. Later he became governor of Indian Lands. In 1836 he lost the election for president to Martin Van Buren. Then he won the next election in 1840.William Harrison had a lot of accomplishment before he was president. William Harrison was born in Virginia. He had to over come some obstacles in his life. One was he grew up during the American Revolution. He and His father disagreed about the job Harrison would have. His father wanted him to be a doctor but when he died Harrison stopped studying medicine and joined the army. He also fought in a lot of difficult battles against the British and the Native Americans. Six out of ten of William Harrison’s children died at an early age. He overcame all of these obstacles. William Harrison only was in office for one month. This was because he caught pneumonia and died.

Psoriasis

Yes, psoriasis can be treated This six-part KULIT article series by the Persatuan Dermatologi Malaysia aims to raise awareness of psoriasis. In this final article, PDM President Dr Allan K C Yee highlights an important message for people with psoriasis – there is no cure yet for psoriasis, but its symptoms can be effectively treated and managed. Be open-minded and willing to work with your doctor to find a treatment that will work for you. The object of treatment is to reduce the extent and severity of psoriasis – the red scaly stigmata, the tell-tale scaling on one’s clothes, the rough cracked palms that make handshakes awkward, painful joints that limit one’s activities. In short, the goal is to improve the quality of life which has been shown in studies to be as affected as much as other major diseases such as cancer, heart disease and depression. The good news is that with today’s medical armamentarium, much can be done to allow the sufferer a greatly improved quality of life. Treatments must be individualized Fortunately, only 20% of psoriatics suffer from severe psoriasis, and the site involved is so variable that the treatments must be individualized. Limited disease can be treated with topical agents but more extensive skin involvement will require oral systemic treatments, phototherapy with artificial UV light, or even injectable agents (biologics). Furthermore psoriasis can affect any part of the body, each meriting special measures. Site-specific treatments For instance, thick scalp psoriasis is often mistakenly treated with endless anti-dandruff shampoos with little results. Scalp psoriasis invariably responds dramatically to tar pomades under occlusion for one to two weeks, a tip that an experienced dermatologist would gladly share with sufferers. Similarly, thick and cracked scaly palms and soles that prevent working with the hands or sometimes even walking, can be significantly improved with special steroid-salicylic acid ointments used under occlusion. These soften and shed the thickened dead skin making the skin pliable and usable once more. Psoriasis affecting the face, body creases – groins, armpits and private areas can be improved with the udicious use of weaker topical steroids and the newer and safer nonsteroidal calcineurin-inhibitors. The problem is that these thinned skinned areas are often treated with strong steroid creams that are not meant to be used in these sensitive areas. The end-result is irreversible side-effects such as ugly pink stretch marks, easy bruising and skin infections. We see a lot of these unfortunate cases who are sold these strong steroids from errant pharmacies without a prescription, or are introduced to them by well-meaning friends and relatives. The Dermatological Society of Malaysia is working with the Ministry of Health to ensure that potent steroids are only available with a prescription. The treatment should not be worse than the disease! Hopefully with warnings such as in this article, the lay public will be better informed about the dangers of self-medicating with potent topical steroids. Topical Treatments Generally, when the extent of psoriasis is limited to less than 5 – 10% of the body surface area (BSA), it is best to use topical treatments in the form of creams, ointments, lotions. As a guide, 1% of the BSA is the area covered by one’s palm. The red, thickened skin in psoriasis is due to the increased multiplication of the skin, allowing the collection of the dead skin layer to be manifested as thick scales. Most effective treatments whether topical or systemic work by reducing the cell multiplication, and by removing the dead skin layers. Time tested agents are coal tar, and anthranols which are messy and brown-staining thus adding further to the stigmatization sufferers feel. More cosmetically acceptable topical agents are steroid creams, vitamin D analogues and calcineurin inhibitors. The latter two are more expensive than the ubiquitous steroid creams but with a superior safety profile. Most psoriatic lesions also tend to be dry and glycerin, urea-based or other humectant moisturizers help relieve soreness and improve recovery especially when used in conjunction with keratolytics – agents that soften and shed the abnormal dead skin layers. Systemic treatments When more than 10% of BSA is involved it becomes impractical to rely on topical measures alone. It may take more than half an hour just to apply creams on large areas of affected skin. Hence, oral or injectable medications are required. Many of these drugs are able to reduce the skin’s cell multiplication or maturation rate eg methotrexate, hydroxyurea, retinoids. However many others suppress the disease process at a more fundamental level by suppressing the activity of abnormal white cells (T-cells) or by neutralizing the T-cells inflammatory chemicals (eg TNF a) eg cyclosporine and the newer biologic agents licensed for use in Malaysia. With the proper use of these systemic agents singly or in combination, it is often possible to control even the most severe cases of psoriasis. However, these systemic agents should only be used by experienced physicians as many of them can have significant side effects. For example, persons with liver disease or gastric ulcers should not be treated with methotrexate; women of child-bearing age should not use retinoids as it can cause fetal abnormalities; persons with high blood pressure or kidney problems cannot use cyclosporine. If a person with severe psoriasis has liver disease, is a woman of childbearing age, or has kidney problems what options then are available for him/her? There are 3 options – oral salazopyrine which only works in 50% of Asians, the injectable biologic agents, or phototherapy (see below). Biologic agents are the new kids on the block. They have a much better safety profile than the above mentioned oral drugs and can be used in persons with liver, kidney disease and women but unfortunately their high cost means relatively few can afford them. Even in the west, where such expensive treatments are reimbursable, the psoriasis must be shown to be non-responsive to conventional oral drugs, or organ toxicities with these drugs are present. Some of them are very helpful in controlling psoriasis as well as the disabling arthritis that affects 10-30% of psoriatics. Phototherapy (PUVA, UVB, nUVB) This is an excellent form of treatment with artificial UV light which is relatively free from serious side effects apart from a small risk of developing non-melanoma skin cancers with prolonged use. This risk is probably not significant in the setting of Asian skin types especially with the newer types of phototherapy equipment such as narrow band UVB (nUVB), and the excimer laser or excimer light. Another advantage of phototherapy is that it is a clean form of treatment, nonmessy and can give a long remission period of up to one year. The main drawback is that it does require visits to the phototherapy centre 3 times a week for 2-3 months. The good news is that most states in Malaysia now have phototherapy units to treat not only psoriasis, but also vitiligo and severe atopic eczema. Alternative therapies In this day and age where the emphasis is on evidence-based medicine (EBM), alternative therapies must prove its worth with hard core scientific evidence from well-conducted clinical studies. Many people with psoriasis who have suffered from the condition for years are, not surprisingly, hopeful for answers, breakthroughs, and even a â€Å"cure† perhaps. Unfortunately, there is no shortage of charlatans offering â€Å"cures† for psoriasis, often in network marketing schemes. One has to acknowledge the fact that psoriasis has a genetic basis, and unless gene therapy becomes a reality, there cannot be a cure, even with accepted treatments such as climatotherapy in the Dead Sea. Diets for psoriasis are as yet unproven, although an FDA-approved healthy diet with at least 5-9 servings of fresh preferably organic produce may be of help in improving one’s general health. Stress reduction strategies may help insofar as stress precipitates and aggravates psoriasis. Prayer has been shown useful in several medical conditions, and a strong faith life can only help, if only to give one the equanimity to deal with the turbulence of modern life. The future of psoriasis treatments There is considerable optimism in the search for better and safer treatments for psoriasis in the near future. We now have a much better understanding of the genetics and underlying immune derangements in psoriasis. It is only a matter of time before the tremendous amount of ongoing research bears better fruit that is sweeter and without the bitter aftertaste of side-effects. Indeed here are promising smaller molecules in the offing that are cheaper to synthesize. Watch out for this space. Psoriasis affects 2-3 percent of Malaysians. This is the final article of a six-part series from PDM’s â€Å"KULIT – Living with Psoriasis† Campaign 2007. For more on psoriasis, treatment options and KULIT, visit www. dermatology. org. my or email [email  protected] com. This article is a guide to help you better understand psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis. Consult a suitably qualified medical practitioner before acting on any information contained above. KULIT is a community programme sponsored by Wyeth Malaysia.

Effectiveness of Working Individually Essay

Abstract This purpose of this mathematics classroom-based research study is to answer the following question: Will allowing students to work in groups improve their understanding, or will working individually lead to greater understanding? I have been at a crossroads trying to determine if and when to allow students to work together or to make them work alone because students do not always manage the social aspects of group work so that it will be advantageous to them. Half of the class was instructed that they would complete their work by working in groups; the other half of the class would complete their work by themselves. I compared students’ pretest results to their post-test results. In both categories there was not much change in understanding from the beginning of the unit to the end of the unit, making it difficult to conclude which student category showed better improvements in understanding. Finally, conclusions about further research are discussed. Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning 3 Background This study investigates students’ understandings about mathematics. The purpose of the research is to answer the following question: Will allowing students to work in groups improve their understanding, or will working individually lead to greater understanding? This idea of group dynamics has been studied and researched, but in my experience, I have had mixed results. In some situations, students help each other, their time is spent on task and they benefit from peer interactions. At other times, students spend their time chatting about  things that are not relevant to the topic at hand, and do not get much work done at all. When students in my class do their work independently, most students tend to complete their work, or they will come ask for help if they cannot continue. I have been at a crossroads trying to determine if and when to allow students to work together or to make them work alone because students do not always manage the social aspects of group work so that it will be advantageous to them. I know why group work is not always a positive experience in my classroom. A major element that must be considered is the difficulty of the work that students are expected to complete. Often times, it may be too difficult for students to complete without guidance from the teacher, leading to group and individual frustration. This is a realistic concern despite the fact this mathematics program is mandated by our district for all students at this grade level. Students are expected to complete the coursework with a certain level of independence and success, however, this issue is debatable, as many educators who teach this mathematics program readily express that they dislike it and/or that their students have difficulty doing the work alone. Another valid concern that can affect group work is management of student behavior. Making students stay focused can be better maintained in my classroom if there was more structure and guidelines about the norms and expectations of group work from the onset of the school year as well as continuous monitoring of group dynamics and progress. The participants in this study are from one of the 7th grade math class that I teach. The study was conducted during the 75-minute math periods. There are 28 students, and I am the only teacher in the class. The classroom has 5 large tables where up to six students can sit. Most often, there are usually four or five people at a table and the other students will sit at other places around the perimeter of the room. For example, students will sit at the computer table, two smaller tables, and on a rug. The seating arrangement is important to this study since they were Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning 4 assigned to work independently, and would need to sit alone, and others worked in groups and sat at the large tables. All classes in the school are organized by our school’s principal with the intention to have the students as equally balanced as possible,  considering race, gender, academic achievement, and behavior as the criterion. The socio-economic status of the school is mainly middle class; about 30% of the school qualifies for a free or reduced lunch. The tables and graphs below show the number and percentage of students in each category. Literature Review There is an abundance of research regarding grouping of students as an educational practice. Grouping can be classified into two major types: homogenous- or heterogeneous-ability groups. In either situation, students can work independently or cooperatively. There have been many studies regarding each of these areas that favor heterogeneous-ability groups and cooperative learning groups. Homogenous grouping, or â€Å"tracking†, has been widely used in America’s educational history, and continues to be used today, but studies show that this type of grouping does not benefit students any more than heterogeneous groups (Esposito, 1973; Mills, 1999; Slavin, 1993; Slavin & Karweit, 1985). Kulik’s (1992) analysis of the research noted that when positive gains are made, they should be attributed to adjustments in instruction and curriculum, not because of the grouping arrangement. When the top, middle and bottom groups use the same curriculum, Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning 6 despite their differing ability, there are no academic gains. When students are placed in homogenous classes, the â€Å"top† students show a slight drop in their confidence levels, while the â€Å"bottom† students show a slight increase. When classes used different curricula, there were some positive changes in achievement. The greatest increase noted is when students are put into enrichment or accelerated classes, mainly because of the additional resources and change in curricula offered. A variation of homogenous grouping by class is homogeneous semi-groups within a heterogeneous class. Slavin & Karweit (1985) cited that many researchers found that the latter has more positive academic results than traditional whole-class instruction. Cooperative learning has been a popular alternative method of grouping students instead of tracking. There is empirical evidence that cooperative learning is effective for students (Gokhale, 1995; Slavin, 1995; Yackel, Cobb & Wood, 1991) but Johnson and Johnson (as cited in Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 2005) find that, â€Å"the successful application of cooperative grouping in classrooms still eludes many educators.† Therefore, researchers continue to investigate this topic, specifically trying to identify the different variables that  make cooperative learning successful and effective (Cohen, 1994; Slavin, 1995; Yackel, Cobb & Wood, 1991). Without certain elements, cooperative learning is no more effective than traditional methods of instruction and learning (Cohen, 1994; Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 2005). One element that has been under research is the effectiveness of cooperative learning based on the type of task the group has to complete (C ohen, 1994). Many tasks can be done individually and do not really require cooperation for understanding. Other tasks, like those that are â€Å"ill-structured† and those where process is more important than outcome, should be used as cooperative learning tasks. Another element that can affect how beneficial cooperative learning can be is the type of interactions that occur between the group members. Cohen (1994) cited many studies that conclude that students’ discussions in groups are good indicators of the achievement that the group will have. In addition, the groups that ask specific questions while working proved to show more gains. Slavin (1995) identified other elements that make cooperative learning beneficial, and those elements are present because of certain theoretical perspectives. The â€Å"motivational perspective† includes group goals and awards as a cornerstone of cooperative learning. This  Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning 7 theory acknowledges that th e objective of group work is for individuals to achieve as a result of being a part of a group. Therefore, in practice, the group can only benefit when the individuals of the group are successful. External rewards are given to groups when the individuals in the group are successful. This is a key element in this theory, and empirical evidence shows that this is a key factor in the effectiveness of all group work. Cohen (1994) acknowledges a compromise of sorts, stating that extrinsic motivational tactics should be used under certain circumstances where group interaction is not enough, for example, when group work is not challenging and could be completed without the group. Other evidence shows that when carefully structured interactions are implemented then cooperative learning can be effective even if there are no extrinsic rewards (Slavin, 1995). Another perspective of cooperative learning labeled â€Å"social cohesion† is more rooted in the interpersonal influence that cooperative learning entails (Slavin, 1995). Under this lens,  an extrinsic reward for the group’s achievement is not necessary because it is believed that the interactions that occur within the group are rewarding enough. This theory is strong in establishing group norms and roles for the members of the group as to enhance group interactions. Slavin’s studies did not find any evidence to support that this perspective on group work produces higher academic gains than traditional instruction, unless it was combined with extrinsic rewards. Other perspectives are also identified that account for mental processing of information that takes place in a cooperative learning setting. The â€Å"developmental perspective† is based on Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s work (as cited in Slavin, 1995) believing that students learn when they interact with others, as long as they are within each other’s zone of proximal development. Large gaps in students’ ability within a group did not yield academic growth. These beliefs alone have not been shown to increase learning, but they do provide the rational behind why cooperative learning is effective. An extension of this belief is the â€Å"cognitive elaboration perspective† which is based on students either providing or listening to detailed explanations of content. O’Donnell & Dansereau and Webb (as cited in Slavin, 1995) found that students who provide elaborate explanations increase the most academically. Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning 8 Methodology The purpose of my research was to determine whether my students gain a better understanding of the mathematics content when they work in groups or when they work individually. I used pretests and posttests as the instrument to determine which situation would be more productive (see Appendix). Questions on the tests were selected from the Mathematics in Context series, which is the mathematics series that my school district has mandated that we use, and from the Philadelphia Math Benchmark, a bi-monthly citywide test. The assessment questions chosen aligned to the objectives and goals of the topic taught during the time frame of this study. They are open-ended questions in which students are told to provide an answer as well as an explanation. I normally use the assessments at the end of a section or unit of study. All participants had to give written parental consent to participate in the study. All students were requested to parti cipate in this study, therefore, before the research was conducted, forms were distributed to the students  (see Appendix). I verbally explained to them that I was a student at a university, and needed to use their work in a project that I had to complete for my courses. Their work would be used to help me determine what teaching strategies worked well. I informed them that their names and other personal information would not be used, just their answers from regular classroom tests and assignments. I went on to say that I needed their and their parents’ permission to use their work in my reports, and it was fine if they did not want to give their permission. If I did not have their permission to use their results, they still had to do all the assignments and assessments, except their answers would not be used in my reports. I asked the students to let their parents know what my intentions were, and for them to return their consent forms promptly. The study began at the same time as a new mathematics topic. I had never taught the math content before, but students had been exposed to the content in previous grades. Before I did any instruction, I administered a pretest with two open-ended questions (see Appendix). The students were advised that this was a test to see what they were able to do before I taught them anything, and that this would not count toward their grade. I also told them that at the end of the lessons, they would take another test to see if they had progressed (the post-test, see Appendix). Over the course of the lessons (which lasted about 2 weeks), I followed the Madeline Hunter model of lesson design. Each day the lesson was structured to include: standards, Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning 9 objectives, anticipatory set, teaching, guided practice, closure, and independent practice (Allen, 1998). It was during the â€Å"guided practice† portion of the lesson that half of the students either worked independently or in random groups (explained below). Half of the class was instructed that they would complete their work for this unit by working in groups; the other half of the class would complete their work by themselves. The students were randomly assigned to work either individually or in groups using Random Sequence Figure 1 – Random Sequence Generator Generator, a program that allows you to generate a random list of a sequence of numbers without repeating any numbers (Haahr, 1998). At the beginning of  the school year, each of my students was given a number (the number has no academic correlation) from 1 to 28 since there are 28 students in the class. The images show how the program lets you choose your sequence of numbers (Figures 1), and will then put those numbers in a random order (Figure 2); I chose from 1 to 28 to represent the 28 students in my class. The first 13 students to appear on the list were assigned to work individually; the other 15 students would work in groups of 3 Figure 2 – Random Sequence Generator List  for the duration of the unit. In cases of absence, groups would work as dyads. To eliminate any concerns about ability, gender,  social grouping, which are variables that were not included in this study, students who worked in groups were shifted daily into different groups throughout the duratio n of the lessons. I managed that by putting each of the 15 students’ numbers on slips of paper and pulling three students at a time to form groups for that day. Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning 10 At the end of the unit, students were given a post-test as a means to measure their progress. The post-test included the same two questions that were on the pretest and one additional open-ended question (see Appendix). All questions were chosen from the Mathematics in Context series and the Philadelphia Math Benchmark, as explained above. The objective was to determine what students could do before instruction on the pretest, and compare the results to those on the post-test. Findings Investigating if there is a difference in understanding when students work alone or if they work in groups naturally led to comparing students’ work. There were several comparisons that are made below, for example, pretest to post-tests, and individuals’ grades to groups’ grades. My expectations before I conducted any research were that most of the students would show some type of growth from the pretest to the post-test whether they worked individually or in groups. I anticipated that those students who worked in groups would be better able to explain their answers than students who worked alone. My conclusions about the cause of change in student understanding from the beginning of the unit to the end is  based on analyzing the change from the pre-test results to the post-test Figure 3 – Averages Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning 11 results (see Figure 3). The pretest had two questions, while the post-test repeated those same two questions plus one additional question. I compared the pretest results to the post-test results according to the averages for each question. It is difficult to conclude which student category showed better improvements in understanding because everyone started out with such high pretest averages. I expected much lower pretest scores so this was surprising and very much unexpected. In both categories, the students’ results for the first two questions show that there was not much change in understanding from the beginning of the unit to the end of the unit, although, those who worked in groups did show a slight increase in their understanding for question 1. Question #3 of the post-test reveals the most interesting and perhaps confusing results. This question was not included on the pretest. The average grade for those who worked individually is higher than those who worked in groups (see Figure 3), but neither category of students showed a proficient level of understanding. Again, this was surprising and unexpected. A closer look at this question reveals that students’ results varied whether they worked in groups or individually (see Figure 4). Neither group showed a strong tendency to score in any specific grading category. However, the students who worked individually did have a greater  Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning 12 percentage that got the question correct by showing and/or explaining their work, and therefore received an â€Å"advanced† grade. Furthermore, those who worked in groups had a higher percentage that got the question wrong, receiving a â€Å"below basic† grade. Based on this data, the st udents who worked individually did have a better understanding of how to solve this problem than those who worked in groups. Conclusions Based on the results of my research, it is difficult for me to  conclude whether having students work in groups or individually helped improve students’ understanding in my classroom. The data I collected did not show that there was a strong improvement in understanding for either group dynamic. One question did favor those who worked individually, but that conclusion cannot be extended to the other questions. There are a few statistical factors that caused my results to be inconclusive. The students’ pretest scores were high, showing that they understood those particular objectives before any instruction took place. In order for the data to show some type of conclusions, one or both of the following things would have had to happen. There would have to be growth from the pretest to the post-test, or the post-test results would have to consistently favor the group workers or the individual workers. My data did not do this. In retrospect there are several things that I would do differently. The first thing would be to vary the pretest and post-test questions. Gokhale (1995) did a similar research study and used different questions in order to prevent students from becoming â€Å"test-wise†. I would also extend the length of the study so that I could repeat the study over several units. I do not think that I had enough data to draw sound conclusions. Both of these changes would make me feel more comfortable and more confident about the results of this study; however they would not necessarily alter my findings. The research about cooperative learning offers suggestions that might yield different results. Research shows that my question about the effectiveness of cooperative learning needs to be modified to investigate whether certain factors of cooperative learning are effective. The research shows that certain elements can or cannot exist which will probably affect whether cooperative learning is working. Certain things like external rewards, group interactions, ability  Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning 13 levels within the group, group tasks, group structure and norms, and elaboration/explanation are influential variables that can be studied. Based on the research about cooperative learning and on my results from my study, I conclude that group work in my classroom is not beneficial to my students’ achievement. I am one of those educators that was eluded as to how to make cooperative learning work. My class falls into the category where group work is no more effective than traditional methods. I am not satisfied with this position, and many  teachers may be in this same situation. To further my practice, and perhaps other teachers’ as well, I would make adjustments to the way I structure cooperative learning in my classroom to include elements suggested from the current research. A good place to begin would be to analyze the theoretical perspectives suggested by Slavin (1995) to see what perspectives best match my own philosophy of teaching. I would then apply some of the fundamental elements that are associated with that belief and repeat my study. Instead of comparing individuals to students that worked in groups, I would investigate which elements of cooperative learning were more effective in my classroom. References Allen, T. (1998). Some basic lesson presentation elements. Retrieved January 2007, from Humboldt State University http://www.humboldt.edu/~tha1/hunter-eei.html Cohen, E. G. (1994). Restructuring the classroom: Conditions for productive small groups. Review of Educational Research. 64, 1-35. Retrieved January, 2007 from http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00346543(198723)57%3A3%3C293%3AAGASAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 Davidson, N., & Kroll, D.L. (1991). An overview of research on cooperative learning related to mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education. 22, 362-365. Retrieved January, 2007 from http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00218251%28199111%2922%3A5%3C362%3AAOOROC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P Esposito, D. (1973). Homogeneous and heterogeneous ability grouping: Principal findings and implications for evaluating and designing more effective educational environments. Review of Educational Research. 43, 163-179. Retrieved January, 2007 from http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00346543(197321)43%3A2%3C163%3AHAHAGP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23 Gokhale, A.A. (1995). Collaborative learning enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology Education, 7, No.1, Retrieved January 2007, from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/v7n1/pdf/gokhale.pdf Haahr, M. (1998). Randomized sequences. Retrieved February 2007 from http://www.random.org/sform.html Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning 15 Kulik, J. A. (1992). An analysis of the research on ability grouping: Historical and contemporary perspectives. National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented, CT. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED350777). Retrieved January 2007, from http://edres.org/eric/ED350777.htm Mills, R. (1997). Grouping Students for Instruction in Middle Schools. ERIC Digest, Retrieved January 2007, from http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-1/grouping.html Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, Portland, Oregon., (2005). Research based strategies: Cooperative grouping. Retrieved January 20, 2007, from Focus on Effectiveness Web site: http://www.netc.org/focus/strategies/coop.php Slavin, R. E. (1993). Ability grouping in the middle grades: Achievement effects and alternatives. The Elementary School Journal. 93, No. 5, 535-552. Retrieved January, 2007 from http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00135984%28199305%2993%3A5%3C535%3AAGITMG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O Slavin, R.E. (1995). Research on cooperative learning and achievement: What we know, what we need to know. Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed at Risk, Retrieved January 2007, from http://www.aegean.gr/culturaltec/c_karagiannidis/20032004/collaborative/slavin1996.pdf Slavin, R. E. , & Karweit, N. L. (1985). Effects of whole class, ability grouped, and individualized instruction on mathematics achievement. American Educational Research Journal. 22, No. 3, 351-367. Retrieved January, 2007 from http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00028312%281985232%2922%3A3%3C351%3AEOWCAG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K Wood, T. (1993). Chapter 2: Creating an Environment for learning mathematics: Social interaction perspective. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education. 6, 15-20. Retrieved January, Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning 16 2007 from http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=08839530%281993%296%3C15%3AC2CAEF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A Yackel, E., Cobb, P., & Wood, T. (1991). Small-group interactions as a source of learning opportunities in second-grade mathematics. 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